China’s only monogamous emperor: why Hongzhi refused a harem, remained dedicated to wife

It is no secret that Chinese emperors had many women in their lives, and the imperial concubine system was a significant feature of feudal social structures.

Ming-era (1368–1644) emperors could have upwards of 9,000 consorts, ostensibly to ensure an heir. Unfortunately, these women often existed in gilded prisons, barred from leaving the palace grounds and frequently subject to the wrath of a cruel emperor. However,…